Educational Thread about Educational Stuff.
#21
(09-25-2016, 08:53 AM)Emil2205 Wrote: Don't mind me, just being a Lordofthesilverrings tryhard

The Thirty Years War



Spoiler: Prelude to the war

In 1555, the Peace of Augsburg was signed by Charles V, the Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. It ended the conflict between Catholic and Protestant states in the Holy Roman Empire and allowed each ruler to choose what their religion should be freely. Protestants were allowed to practice their faith even in Catholic nations.

Meanwhile, many of the neighbours of the Holy Roman Empire, such as Spain, France, Denmark and Sweden were interrested in expanding their influence in the Empire.

The Holy Roman Empire was a fragmented collection of largely independent states. The position of the Holy Roman Emperor was mainly titular, but the emperors, from the House of Habsburg, also directly ruled a large portion of imperial territory (lands of the Archduchy of Austria and the Kingdom of Bohemia), as well as the Kingdom of Hungary.

The Austrian domain was thus a major European power in its own right, ruling over some eight million subjects. Another branch of the House of Habsburg ruled over Spain and its empire, which included the Spanish Netherlands, southern Italy, the Philippines, and most of the Americas. In addition to Habsburg lands, the Holy Roman Empire contained several regional powers, such as the Duchy of Bavaria, the Electorate of Saxony, the Margraviate of Brandenburg, the Electorate of the Palatinate, Landgraviate of Hesse, the Archbishopric of Trier, and the Free Imperial City of Nuremberg. A vast number of minor independent duchies, free cities, abbeys, prince-bishoprics, and petty lordships (whose authority sometimes extended to no more than a single village) rounded out the empire.

Apart from Austria and perhaps Bavaria, none of those entities was capable of national-level politics; alliances between family-related states were common, due partly to the frequent practice of partible inheritance, i.e. splitting a lord's inheritance among his various sons.

In 1618, Emperor Ferdinand II was coronated. And soon after he tried to press for religious uniformity and the banishment of Protestants from the Empire.





Spoiler: Phase I - Bohemian Revolt

Bohemia (parts of modern day Czech Republic) mainly consisted of Protestants. But then Ferdinand II was elected as the heir to Bohemia. The king-elect then sent two Catholic councillors (Vilem Slavata of Chlum and Jaroslav Borzita of Martinice) as his representatives to Prague Castle in Prague in May 1618. Ferdinand had wanted them to administer the government in his absence. On 23 May 1618, an assembly of Protestants seized them and threw them (and also secretary Philip Fabricius) out of the palace window, which was some 21 m (69 ft) off the ground.

This started the Bohemian Revolt and the first phase of the Thirty Years War. The Revolt soon spread all over Bohemia, most of which supported Frederick V of the Palatinate who was a Protestant.

Had the Bohemian rebellion remained a local conflict, the war could have been over in fewer than 30 months. However, the death of Emperor Matthias emboldened the rebellious Protestant leaders, who had been on the verge of a settlement. The weaknesses of both Ferdinand (now officially on the throne after the death of Emperor Matthias) and of the Bohemians themselves led to the spread of the war to western Germany. Ferdinand was compelled to call on his nephew, King Philip IV of Spain, for assistance.

The Bohemians, desperate for allies against the emperor, applied to be admitted into the Protestant Union, which was led by their original candidate for the Bohemian throne, the Calvinist Frederick V, Elector Palatine. The Bohemians hinted Frederick would become King of Bohemia if he allowed them to join the Union and come under its protection. However, similar offers were made by other members of the Bohemian Estates to the Duke of Savoy, the Elector of Saxony, and the Prince of Transylvania. The Austrians, who seemed to have intercepted every letter leaving Prague, made these duplicities public. This unraveled much of the support for the Bohemians, particularly in the court of Saxony. In spite of these issues surrounding their support, the rebellion initially favoured the Bohemians. They were joined in the revolt by much of Upper Austria

The Spanish sent an army from Brussels under Ambrosio Spinola to support the Emperor. In addition, the Spanish ambassador to Vienna, Don Íñigo Vélez de Oñate, persuaded Protestant Saxony to intervene against Bohemia in exchange for control over Lusatia. The Saxons invaded, and the Spanish army in the west prevented the Protestant Union's forces from assisting. Oñate conspired to transfer the electoral title from the Palatinate to the Duke of Bavaria in exchange for his support and that of the Catholic League.

The Catholic League's army (which included René Descartes in its ranks as an observer) pacified Upper Austria, while Imperial forces under Johan Tzerclaes, Count of Tilly, pacified Lower Austria. The two armies united and moved north into Bohemia. Ferdinand II decisively defeated Frederick V at the Battle of White Mountain, near Prague, on 8 November 1620. In addition to becoming Catholic, Bohemia remained in Habsburg hands for nearly 300 years.

This defeat led to the dissolution of the League of Evangelical Union and the loss of Frederick V's holdings despite the tenacious defence of Trebon, Bohemia (under Colonel Seton) until 1622 and Frankenthal (under Colonel Vere) the following year. Frederick was outlawed from the Holy Roman Empire, and his territories, the Rhenish Palatinate, were given to Catholic nobles. His title of elector of the Palatinate was given to his distant cousin, Duke Maximilian of Bavaria. Frederick, now landless, made himself a prominent exile abroad and tried to curry support for his cause in Sweden, the Netherlands, and Denmark.







Spoiler: The Huguenot Rebellions

Following the Wars of Religion of 1562–1598, the Protestant Huguenots of France (mainly located in the southwestern provinces) had enjoyed two decades of internal peace under Henry IV, who was originally a Huguenot before converting to Catholicism, and had protected Protestants through the Edict of Nantes. His successor, Louis XIII, under the regency of his Italian Catholic mother, Marie de' Medici, was much less tolerant. The Huguenots responded to increasing persecution by arming themselves, forming independent political and military structures, establishing diplomatic contacts with foreign powers, and finally, openly revolting against the central power.

The revolt became an international conflict with the involvement of England in the Anglo-French War (1627–29). The House of Stuart in England had been involved in attempts to secure peace in Europe (through the Spanish Match), and had intervened in the war against both Spain and France. However, defeat by the French (which indirectly led to the assassination of the English leader the Duke of Buckingham), lack of funds for war, and internal conflict between Charles I and his Parliament led to a redirection of English involvement in European affairs – much to the dismay of Protestant forces on the continent. This had the continued reliance on the Anglo-Dutch brigade as the main agency of English military participation against the Habsburgs, though regiments also fought for Sweden thereafter. France remained the largest Catholic kingdom unaligned with the Habsburg powers, and would later actively wage war against Spain. The French Crown's response to the Huguenot rebellion was not so much a representation of the typical religious polarization of the Thirty Years' War, but rather of an attempt at achieving national hegemony by an absolutist monarchy.







Spoiler: Phase II - The Danish Intervention

Peace following the Imperial victory at Stadtlohn (1623) proved short-lived, with conflict resuming at the initiation of Denmark. Danish involvement, referred to as the Low Saxon War or Kejserkrigen ("the Emperor's War"), began when Christian IV of Denmark, a Lutheran who also ruled as Duke of Holstein, a duchy within the Holy Roman Empire, helped the Lutheran rulers of neighbouring Lower Saxony by leading an army against the Imperial forces in 1625.

Denmark had feared that the recent Catholic successes threatened its sovereignty as a Protestant nation. Christian IV had also profited greatly from his policies in northern Germany. For instance, in 1621, Hamburg had been forced to accept Danish sovereignty. Denmark's King Christian IV had obtained for his kingdom a level of stability and wealth that was virtually unmatched elsewhere in Europe. Denmark was funded by tolls on the Oresund and also by extensive war reparations from Sweden. Denmark's cause was aided by France, which together with Charles I, had agreed to help subsidize the war, not the least because Christian was a blood uncle to both the Stuart king and his sister Elizabeth of Bohemia through their mother, Anne of Denmark. Some 13,700 Scottish soldiers were to be sent as allies to help Christian IV under the command of General Robert Maxwell, 1st Earl of Nithsdale. Moreover, some 6,000 English troops under Charles Morgan also eventually arrived to bolster the defence of Denmark, though it took longer for these to arrive than Christian hoped, not the least due to the ongoing British campaigns against France and Spain. Thus, Christian, as war-leader of the Lower Saxon Circle, entered the war with an army of only 20,000 mercenaries, some of his allies from England and Scotland and a national army 15,000 strong, leading them as Duke of Holstein rather than as King of Denmark.

To fight Christian, Ferdinand II employed the military help of Albrecht von Wallenstein, a Bohemian nobleman who had made himself rich from the confiscated estates of his Protestant countrymen. Wallenstein pledged his army, which numbered between 30,000 and 100,000 soldiers, to Ferdinand II in return for the right to plunder the captured territories. Christian, who knew nothing of Wallenstein's forces when he invaded, was forced to retire before the combined forces of Wallenstein and Tilly. Christian's mishaps continued when all of the allies he thought he had were forced aside: France was in the midst of a civil war, Sweden was at war with the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, and neither Brandenburg nor Saxony was interested in changes to the tenuous peace in eastern Germany. Moreover, neither of the substantial British contingents arrived in time to prevent Wallenstein defeating Mansfeld's army at the Battle of Dessau Bridge (1626) or Tilly's victory at the Battle of Lutter (1626). Mansfeld died some months later of illness, apparently tuberculosis, in Dalmatia.

Wallenstein's army marched north, occupying Mecklenburg, Pomerania, and Jutland itself, but proved unable to take the Danish capital Copenhagen on the island of Zealand. Wallenstein lacked a fleet, and neither the Hanseatic ports nor the Poles would allow the building of an imperial fleet on the Baltic coast. He then laid siege to Stralsund, the only belligerent Baltic port with sufficient facilities to build a large fleet; it soon became clear, however, that the cost of continuing the war would far outweigh any gains from conquering the rest of Denmark. Wallenstein feared losing his northern German gains to a Danish-Swedish alliance, while Christian IV had suffered another defeat in the Battle of Wolgast (1628); both were ready to negotiate.

Negotiations concluded with the Treaty of Lübeck in 1629, which stated that Christian IV could retain control over Denmark (incl. the duchies of Sleswick and Holstein) if he would abandon his support for the Protestant German states.






Spoiler: Phase III - The Swedish Intervention

Some within Ferdinand II's court did not trust Wallenstein, believing that he sought to join forces with the German princes and thus gain influence over the Emperor. Ferdinand II dismissed Wallenstein in 1630. He was later to recall him, after the Swedes, led by King Gustavus Adolphus, had successfully invaded the Holy Roman Empire and turned the tables on the Catholics.

Like Christian IV before him, Gustavus Adolphus came to aid the German Lutherans, to forestall Catholic suzerainty in his back yard, and to obtain economic influence in the German states around the Baltic Sea; he was also concerned about the growing power of the Holy Roman Empire, and like Christian IV before him, was heavily subsidized by Cardinal Richelieu, the chief minister of Louis XIII of France, and by the Dutch. From 1630 to 1634, Swedish-led armies drove the Catholic forces back, regaining much of the lost Protestant territory. During his campaign, he managed to conquer half of the imperial kingdoms, making Sweden the continental leader of Protestantism until the Swedish Empire ended in 1721.

Swedish forces entered the Holy Roman Empire via the Duchy of Pomerania, which served as the Swedish bridgehead since the Treaty of Stettin (1630). After dismissing Wallenstein in 1630, Ferdinand II became dependent on the Catholic League. Gustavus Adolphus allied with France in the Treaty of Bärwalde (January 1631). France and Bavaria signed the secret Treaty of Fontainebleau (1631), but this was rendered irrelevant by Swedish attacks against Bavaria. At the Battle of Breitenfeld (1631), Gustavus Adolphus's forces defeated the Catholic League led by Tilly. A year later, they met again in another Protestant victory, this time accompanied by the death of Tilly. The upper hand had now switched from the league to the union, led by Sweden. In 1630, Sweden had paid at least 2,368,022 daler for its army of 42,000 men. In 1632, it contributed only one-fifth of that (476,439 daler) towards the cost of an army more than three times as large (149,000 men). This was possible due to subsidies from France, and the recruitment of prisoners (most of them taken at the Battle of Breitenfeld) into the Swedish army.

With Tilly dead, Ferdinand II returned to the aid of Wallenstein and his large army. Wallenstein marched up to the south, threatening Gustavus Adolphus's supply chain. Gustavus Adolphus knew that Wallenstein was waiting for the attack and was prepared, but found no other option. Wallenstein and Gustavus Adolphus clashed in the Battle of Lützen (1632), where the Swedes prevailed, but Gustavus Adolphus was killed.

By the spring of 1635, all Swedish resistance in the south of Germany had ended. After that, the imperialist and the Protestant German sides met for negotiations, producing the Peace of Prague (1635), which entailed a delay in the enforcement of the Edict of Restitution for 40 years and allowed Protestant rulers to retain secularized bishoprics held by them in 1627. This protected the Lutheran rulers of northeastern Germany, but not those of the south and west (whose lands had been occupied by the imperial or league armies prior to 1627).

The treaty also provided for the union of the army of the emperor and the armies of the German states into a single army of the Holy Roman Empire (although John George I of Saxony and Maximillian I of Bavaria kept, as a practical matter, independent command of their forces, now nominally components of the "imperial" army). Finally, German princes were forbidden from establishing alliances amongst themselves or with foreign powers, and amnesty was granted to any ruler who had taken up arms against the emperor after the arrival of the Swedes in 1630.

This treaty failed to satisfy France, however, because of the renewed strength it granted the Habsburgs. France then entered the conflict, beginning the final period of the Thirty Years' War. Sweden did not take part in the Peace of Prague and it continued the war together with France.







Spoiler: Phase IV - The French Intervention

France, although Roman Catholic, was a rival of the Holy Roman Empire and Spain. Cardinal Richelieu, the chief minister of King Louis XIII of France, considered the Habsburgs too powerful, since they held a number of territories on France's eastern border, including portions of the Netherlands. Richelieu had already begun intervening indirectly in the war in January 1631, when the French diplomat Hercule de Charnacé signed the Treaty of Bärwalde with Gustavus Adolphus, by which France agreed to support the Swedes with 1,000,000 livres each year in return for a Swedish promise to maintain an army in Germany against the Habsburgs. The treaty also stipulated that Sweden would not conclude a peace with the Holy Roman Emperor without first receiving France's approval.

After the Swedish rout at Nördlingen in September 1634 and the Peace of Prague in 1635, in which the Protestant German princes sued for peace with the German emperor, Sweden's ability to continue the war alone appeared doubtful, and Richelieu made the decision to enter into direct war against the Habsburgs. France declared war on Spain in May 1635 and the Holy Roman Empire in August 1636, opening offensives against the Habsburgs in Germany and the Low Countries. France aligned her strategy with the allied Swedes in Wismar (1636) and Hamburg (1638).

After the Peace of Prague, the Swedes reorganised the Royal Army under Johan Banér and created a new one, the Army of the Weser under the command of Alexander Leslie. The two army groups moved south from spring 1636, re-establishing alliances on the way including a revitalised one with Wilhelm of Hesse-Kassel. The two Swedish armies combined and confronted the imperialists at the Battle of Wittstock. Despite the odds being stacked against them, the Swedish army won. This success largely reversed many of the effects of their defeat at Nördlingen, albeit not without creating some tensions between Banér and Leslie.

Emperor Ferdinand II died in 1637 and was succeeded by his son Ferdinand III, who was strongly inclined toward ending the war through negotiations. His army did, however, win an important success at the Battle of Vlotho in 1638 against a combined Swedish-English-Palatine force. This victory effectively ended the involvement of the Palatinate in the war.

French military efforts met with disaster, and the Spanish counter-attacked, invading French territory. The Imperial general Johann von Werth and Spanish commander Cardinal-Infante Ferdinand of Spain ravaged the French provinces of Champagne, Burgundy, and Picardy, and even threatened Paris in 1636. Then, the tide began to turn for the French. The Spanish army was repulsed by Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar. Bernhard's victory in the Battle of Compiègne pushed the Habsburg armies back towards the borders of France. Then, for a time, widespread fighting ensued until 1640, with neither side gaining an advantage.

However, the war reached a climax and the tide of the war turned clearly toward the French and against Spain in 1640 starting with the siege and capture of the fort at Arras. (This is the battle mentioned in Edmond Rostand's play, Cyrano de Bergerac, as being the battle in which Rostand's fictional character Cyrano fought.) The French conquered Arras from the Spanish following a siege that lasted from 16 June to 9 August 1640. When Arras fell, the way was opened to the French to take all of Flanders. The ensuing French campaign against the Spanish forces in Flanders culminated with a decisive French victory at Rocroi in May 1643. News of these French victories provided strong encouragement to separatist movements in the Spanish province of Catalonia and in Portugal. The Catalonian revolt had sprung up spontaneously in May 1640. Since that time, it had been the conscious goal of Cardinal Richelieu to promote a "war by diversion" against the Spanish. Richelieu wanted to create difficulties for the Spanish at home which might encourage them to withdraw from the war. To fight this war by diversion, Cardinal Richelieu had been supplying aid to the Catalonians.

Meanwhile, an important act in the war was played out by the Swedes. After the battle of Wittstock, the Swedish army regained the initiative in the German campaign. In the Second Battle of Breitenfeld in 1642, outside Leipzig, the Swedish Field Marshal Lennart Torstenson defeated an army of the Holy Roman Empire led by Archduke Leopold Wilhelm of Austria and his deputy, Prince-General Ottavio Piccolomini, Duke of Amalfi. The imperial army suffered 20,000 casualties. In addition, the Swedish army took 5,000 prisoners and seized 46 guns, at a cost to themselves of 4,000 killed or wounded. The battle enabled Sweden to occupy Saxony and impressed on Ferdinand III the need to include Sweden, and not only France, in any peace negotiations.

In 1643, Denmark made preparations to again intervene in the war, but on the imperial side (against Sweden). The Swedish marshal Lennart Torstenson expelled Danish prince Frederick from Bremen-Verden, gaining a stronghold south of Denmark and hindering Danish participation as mediators in the peace talks in Westphalia. Torstensson went on to occupy Jutland, and after the Royal Swedish Navy under Carl Gustaf Wrangel inflicted a decisive defeat on the Danish Navy in the battle of Fehmern Belt in an action of 13 October 1644, forcing them to sue for peace. With Denmark out of the war, Torstenson then pursued the Imperial army under Gallas from Jutland in Denmark south to Bohemia. At the Battle of Jankau near Prague, the Swedish army defeated the Imperial army under Gallas and could occupy Bohemian lands and threaten Prague, as well as Vienna.

In 1645, a French army under Turenne was almost destroyed by the Bavarians at the Battle of Herbsthausen. However, reinforced by Louis II de Bourbon, Prince de Condé, it defeated its opponent in the Second Battle of Nördlingen. The last Catholic commander of note, Baron Franz von Mercy, died in the battle. However, the French army's effort on the Rhine had little result, in contrast to its string of victories in Flanders and Artois. The same year, the Swedes entered Austria and besieged Vienna, but they could not take the city and had to retreat. The siege of Brünn in Bohemia proved as fruitless, as the Swedish army met with fierce resistance from the Habsburg forces. After five months, the Swedish army, severely worn out, had to withdraw.

On 14 March 1647, Bavaria, Cologne, France, and Sweden signed the Truce of Ulm. In 1648, the Swedes (commanded by Marshal Carl Gustaf Wrangel) and the French (led by Turenne and Condé) defeated the Imperial army at the Battle of Zusmarshausen and the Spanish at Lens. However, an Imperial army led by Octavio Piccolomini managed to check the Franco-Swedish army in Bavaria, though their position remained fragile. The Battle of Prague in 1648 became the last action of the Thirty Years' War. The general Hans Christoff von Königsmarck, commanding Sweden's flying column, entered the city and captured Prague Castle (where the event that triggered the war – the Defenestration of Prague – took place, 30 years before). There, they captured many valuable treasures, including the Codex Gigas, which is still today preserved in Stockholm. However, they failed to conquer the right-bank part of Prague and the old city, which resisted until the end of the war. These results left only the Imperial territories of Austria safely in Habsburg hands.







Spoiler: Peace of Westphalia

The power taken by Ferdinand III in contravention of the Holy Roman Empire's constitution was stripped and returned to the rulers of the Imperial States. This rectification allowed the rulers of the Imperial States to independently decide their religious worship. Protestants and Catholics were redefined as equal before the law, and Calvinism was given legal recognition. Independence of the Dutch Republic also provided a safe country for European Jews.

The Holy See was very displeased at the settlement, with Pope Innocent X in Zelo Domus Dei reportedly calling it "null, void, invalid, iniquitous, unjust, damnable, reprobate, inane, empty of meaning and effect for all time".


The main tenets of the Peace of Westphalia were:
  • All parties would recognize the Peace of Augsburg of 1555, in which each prince would have the right to determine the religion of his own state, the options being Catholicism, Lutheranism, and now Calvinism (the principle of cuius regio, eius religio).
  • Christians living in principalities where their denomination was not the established church were guaranteed the right to practice their faith in public during allotted hours and in private at their will.
  • General recognition of the exclusive sovereignty of each party over its lands, people, and agents abroad, and responsibility for the warlike acts of any of its citizens or agents. Issuance of unrestricted letters of marque and reprisal to privateers was forbidden.
  • The independence of Switzerland from the Empire was formally recognized; these territories had enjoyed de facto independence for decades.
  • The majority of the Peace's terms can be attributed to the work of Cardinal Mazarin, the de facto leader of France at the time (the king, Louis XIV, being a child). Not surprisingly, France came out of the war in a far better position than any of the other participants. France retained the control of the Bishoprics of Metz, Toul and Verdun near Lorraine, received the cities of the Décapole in Alsace (but not Strasbourg, the Bishopric of Strasbourg, or Mulhouse) and the city of Pignerol near the Spanish Duchy of Milan.
  • Sweden received an indemnity of five million talers, used primarily to pay its troops. Sweden further received Western Pomerania (henceforth Swedish Pomerania), Wismar, and the Prince-Bishoprics of Bremen and Verden as hereditary fiefs, thus gaining a seat and vote in the Imperial Diet of the Holy Roman Empire as well as in the respective circle diets (Kreistag) of the Upper Saxon, Lower Saxon and Westphalian circles.
  • Bavaria retained the Palatinate's vote in the Imperial Council of Electors (which elected the Holy Roman Emperor), which it had been granted by the ban on the Elector Palatine Frederick V in 1623. The Prince Palatine, Frederick's son, was given a new, eighth electoral vote.
  • The Palatinate was divided between the re-established Elector Palatine Charles Louis (son and heir of Frederick V) and Elector-Duke Maximilian of Bavaria, and thus between the Protestants and Catholics. Charles Louis obtained the Lower Palatinate, along the Rhine, while Maximilian kept the Upper Palatinate, to the north of Bavaria.
  • Brandenburg-Prussia (later Prussia) received Farther Pomerania, and the Bishoprics of Magdeburg, Halberstadt, Kammin, and Minden.
  • The succession to the United Duchies of Jülich-Cleves-Berg, whose last duke had died in 1609, was clarified. Jülich, Berg, and Ravenstein were given to the Count Palatine of Neuburg, while Cleves, Mark, and Ravensberg went to Brandenburg.
  • It was agreed that the Prince-Bishopric of Osnabrück would alternate between Protestant and Catholic holders, with the Protestant bishops chosen from cadets of the House of Brunswick-Lüneburg.
  • The independence of the city of Bremen was clarified.
  • Barriers to trade and commerce erected during the war were abolished, and "a degree" of free navigation was guaranteed on the Rhine






Spoiler: Casaulties

During the entire war, more than 8 million people died. The casaulties varied by region, but in some places the population had gone down by 50%.

The State of Württemberg lost 33% of their population during the entire war, while in Brandenburg they had lost half their population.




someone get this man a job here
#22
World War 2 Leaders
A complete list of the national leaders of the countries which participated in the war

The aggressors

Adolf Hitler
Adolf Hitler's Historic Background

Spoiler :
To understand Adolf Hitler and his rise to power it's important to know the historic background. World War 1 was primarily the result of the German militarism. In many ways it was the most militarized nation and until the end of that war it was dominated by its military. When it was defeated in 1918, the German military leadership, which stopped the war before the military collapsed, convinced the German people that they were betrayed, "Stabbed in the back by civilians". It was an irrational excuse, given the military's domination, but it became a popular myth. The defeat in World War 1 was therefore a traumatic shock to most Germans, especially to the German soldiers, and almost no one in Western Europe understood it then. This resulted in a very weak post-war democratic regime in Germany. In addition to that, Germany was divided between a "western" and "eastern" political and social orientations. Today, when Germany is a modern liberal "western" country it's hard to figure it out, but before World War 2, Germany was mostly dominated by the "eastern" orientation that rejected western liberalism and democracy, and had a militarist aggressive orientation facing East, and the "western" orientation which represented peaceful liberalism was a minority. However, this minority orientation governed Germany's weak post-WWI democracy. In Germany and in its sister ethnic-German Austria there was strong anti-semitism that since the 19th century developed to a strong political force that blamed jews for all problems and trouble. This internal hate was intensified after the defeat of World War 1. This was the background for Adolf Hitler's rise to total power as the dictator of Germany, for his aggressive quest for world domination, and the horrible crimes against humanity committed in his command.



Adolf Hitler's early years

Spoiler :
Adolf Hitler was born in 1889 in a small Austrian village close to the German border, the son of a border customs clerk and a housemaid. As a teenager, he began to develop an artistic talent. At age 16 he quit high-school. At age 17 he applied for the Vienna academy of fine arts, but was rejected. When he was 14 his father died, and when he was 18 his loving mother had cancer. She was treated by a Jewish Doctor, but despite costly and painful treatment she died. He was then 18, and alone in the world. He returned to Vienna, and quickly became penniless. He wandered in Vienna, slept in bars and in shelters for the homeless. His attempts to make a living as a painter were futile. He had two Jewish friends there, but Vienna was then an active center of strong anti-semitism, and Hitler also read "The Protocols of the Learned Elders of Zion", a FAKE document that was written by the pre-WWI Russian Royal secret police in a cynical attempt to divert public blame of Russia's trouble from the monarchy to the jews. The "protocols" describe an imaginary conspiracy of rich jews to dominate the world by dominating countries like puppets and turning them against each other. Hitler, already a typical anti-semitic, believed every word. In his poor six years in Vienna, Adolf Hitler developed his extreme hate of jews, was exposed to the idea of anti-Jewish legislation, discovered his remarkable talent of speech, that used grand romantic metaphors from German culture and from his imaginative artistic soul, and developed his view of how a totalitarian state should be managed, following the example of Vienna's very successful Mayor, who was also an anti-semitic. At age 24, still penniless, Adolf Hitler left Vienna and crossed the border to Germany in order to avoid military service in the Austrian army. He was arrested and brought back to Austria, but was then found "Unfit, too weak, unable to bear arms". Given his later military service and bravery in combat, it's obvious that he successfully played a false figure in order to escape a peacetime military service he wanted to avoid.


A soldier in World War 1

Spoiler :
When the fragile European balance of power exploded a year later into World War 1, Hitler's German patriotism was ignited, and he decided to join the military. Because of his previous incident with the Austrian military, he returned to Germany, the ally sister country, and volunteered to the German army. After a short training, his unit was sent to the bloody static battlefield in the trenches of the western front, and fought mainly against British forces. He fought bravely, narrowly escaped death several times, and was decorated twice with the Iron Cross medal, but not promoted. He was wounded twice in combat. In his 2nd injury he was temporarily blinded. During his recovery from his 2nd injury, still blind, in a military hospital, he was surprised and shocked with the news that the war ended with a German defeat. It's important to note that during his years in the military, Hitler received political indoctrination that completed his political education, and made him a strong supporter of the "eastern" militarist orientation. His cruel war experience, he later said, also developed in him an uncompromising iron will. Post-war Germany was in chaos. Communism rose, and Communist movements rioted in the cities, some of them led by jews. Eventually Germany turned from a militarist monarchy to a democracy, with an executive prime minister and a president that kept powerful authorities, the replacement of the king. The socialists gained control of the government. The situation in the streets got worse. The new government finally signed the peace treaty that included loss of territory, a severe economical burden of compensations, and severe limitations on the German military's size and equipment, which were supposed to reduce its threat. It was perceived by most Germans as a great national humiliation. Hitler, finally recovered from his injury, and still officially a soldier, joined a para-military militia of war veterans who clashed with the communists in the streets of German cities. He was then given the task of closely monitoring a tiny right-wing political group called "German Worker's Party".


Hitler enters politics


Spoiler :
Hitler quickly realized that their ideas match his, and that they can be his vehicle for political power, that he decided that he wants as a result of the affair of the war's defeat and the humiliating peace treaty. In April of 1920, at age 31, still with no occupation, he resigned from the military to enter career politics as the new leader of this tiny political group that he initially spied on. It had a militarist "eastern" oriented, anti-semitic, nationalist foreign policy, with a domestic policy of state-controlled "Socialism". It was basically the policy of the previous totalitarian militarist regime, with a big dose of added anti-semitism, and like the communists, it addressed the wide public of workers and ex-soldiers. In 1923 the German economy collapsed into wild hyper-inflation. The peace treaty compensation was blamed for it, but the real reason was that Germany's long time costly militarism that was previously paid for by the fruits of victories, had no victory now to pay its huge national debt, and the government ignored good economical advice that came from top foreign experts. The inflation was such that a visiting US Congressman exchanged $7 for 4,000,000,000 DM, the German currency. Most Germans lost everything they had. They blamed the peace treaty compensations and "Jewish traders". The political crisis that followed resulted in an emergency wide coalition, but also in new violent Communist riots. Eager for power, Hitler thought it's the right time for a revolution of his own. His supporters captured the members of the local government of the state of Bavaria, and he appointed himself the new political master of Bavaria. He marched 3000 of his supporters in the city, but then the police fired at them, and the "revolution" failed. Hitler received a sentence of 5 years in prison, but thanks to the dominance of the "eastern" politicians, which included himself, his imprisonment was like a VIP hotel stay. Instead of a prison cell and prisoner's uniform, he was busy receiving guest politicians and fans six hours a day, wearing traditional Bavarian clothes, and in his 35th birthday, the flowers candies and presents he received filled several rooms. Instead of 5 years, his imprisonment lasted just 9 months. During those months three things happened: 1. Finally, following top international experts' advice, the government successfully stabilized the economy and started a period of several years of steady economical growth.
2. The "western" German orientation lost its remaining popular support, and the German people began to steadily drift back to totalitarianism and militarism. The author D.H. Lawrence, who visited Germany in 1921 and again in 1924 noticed this dramatic drift in public orientation. He wrote "The Germans are disconnecting from the West and drift to the deserts of the East. Germany no longer seeks to join Western Europe and peacefulness. It's over. Germany is turning back to the destructive magic of the East that produced Atila. There is a disturbing sense of danger. There is no more hope for peace and prosperity. Instead there is a return to Tartar savagery and further from Christian European civilization. It happens, and it's deeper than any actual event." - an amazingly sensitive and breathtaking early observation, a precise warning 15 years! before the war began.


Nazi dictator of Germany (1933-45), planned and started World War 2, committed suicide at the end of the war
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General Hideki Tojo


Spoiler :
Prime minister of Japan (October 1941 - July 1944). With a long militarist tradition, Japan became extremely militarist and aggressive in the 1930s and was practically governed by military leaders. Tojo, an aggressive army General, became minister of war in July 1941 and prime minister in October 1941. After a short attempt to improve relations with the US failed, he ordered to go to war and attack Pearl Harbor in December 1941. He gradually took more ministerial roles, and in Feb. 1944 also made himself the commander in chief, like Adolf Hitler did. When he realized that Japan was going to lose the war he resigned. The military continued to control Japan until the end of World War 2, which came when the Emperor Hirohito which was until then passive, ordered to surrender in order to prevent further inevitable destruction of Japan. After the war Tojo was executed for his responsibility to Japan's war crimes.


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Benito Mussolini

[Image: Mussolini_biografia.jpg]

Spoiler :
Benito Mussolini, was the prime minister of Italy (1922-1943). A former journalist, he went to politics and formed the Fascist party, whose ideology, Fascism, called for a one-party state, total obedience, patriotic nationalism, and aggressive militarism. The ideology and its implementation in Mussolini's Italy influenced Adolf Hitler's own ideology, Nazism, which was a combination of Fascism with extreme racism. Initially Mussolini led a right-wing coalition, but later Italy became a one party state. His treatment of unemployment made Mussolini popular, but the military aggression of Fascism led to its failure. Mussolini was eager to demonstrate the "strength" of his regime by invading weaker neighbors. In 1935 he invaded and occupied the peaceful Ethiopia from Italy's nearby colony in East Africa. In 1936, the two Fascist dictators, Hitler and Mussolini, signed an alliance. In 1939 he invaded and occupied his small neighbor Albania, and Mussolini then enhanced his alliance with Hitler to a full military alliance. Mussolini knew that his military was not very effective, but when the Germans defeated the French and British forces in mid 1940 he thought it was safe enough for him to attack Britain and the collapsing France too and declared war, and in October 1940 he also invaded Greece, and was repelled. Mussolini had a million soldiers in Libya, and he sent them to attack the small British force in Egypt. The Italian Navy and Air Force attacked British ports and shipping in the Mediterranean, from Gibraltar in the West to Haifa (Israel) in the East. Despite its numerical strength and the fact that British forces in the Mediterranean were greatly outnumbered and very stretched, the Italian military could not defeat them anywhere, and was severely beaten by the British, and simply had to call for the help of the much more capable Germans. Even with German help, the British forces only lost their positions in Greece and kept fighting fiercely from their island bases in Malta, Gibraltar, and in North Africa. Mussolini's Italy became a German puppet, and even sent troops to participate in Germany's invasion of Russia. Eventually, British and American forces eliminated the Italian and German forces in North Africa and followed in July 1943 with an invasion of Sicily in South Italy. It was clear that Italy was losing the war, so several days after the invasion Mussolini was replaced and arrested in a remote mountain castle. Hitler sent commandos to rescue his friend from captivity. In April 1945, when German defence in North Italy collapsed, Mussolini was captured by Italian partisans and executed.


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The defenders



Winston Churchill

Spoiler :
Winston Churchill kept warning of the Nazi danger in pre-war years. He was elected prime minister of Great Britain after the total collapse of the appeasement policy of his predecessor Neville Chamberlain. Chamberlain failed to understand that aggressors like Hitler can not be appeased. Churchill became prime minister on May 10, 1940, at the same day when the German Blitzkrieg invasion of France began. After the quick collapse of the French military, Britain itself was under a threat of a German amphibious invasion, and was attacked by the full force of the German Luftwaffe. It was also under a maritime siege by the German U-boat submarines. At these very difficult and dangerous times, Churchill, "the British Lion", excelled as a wartime leader. His fighting spirit raised the morale of the British people. He also forged a strong alliance with the US. Churchill is one of the main World War 2 leaders, and one of the most prominent national leaders in history.



Joseph Stalin

Spoiler :
Joseph Stalin was the very brutal Communist dictator of Russia (1928-1953). In the years before World War 2 Stalin murdered or imprisoned almost all of Russia's senior military officers, and millions of other Russian citizens, in a paranoid and unprecedented wave of political terror. This clearly weakened Russia and further encouraged Hitler to attack it. The pre-war pacifist strategy, military weakness, and anti-Communism of Britain and France led Stalin in August 1939 to decide that making a deal with Hitler is a better way to protect Russia from Hitler than making an alliance with Britain and France against him. As part of the deal Russia invaded half of Poland after Hitler started World War 2 by invading Poland. In June 1941, after conquering the rest of Europe, Hitler did what he promised for 18 years and invaded Russia. In addition to the great weakness caused by the absence of experienced senior officers because of Stalin's political murders, Stalin further damaged the Russian military's ability to fight by first obsessively ignoring all the intelligence warnings of the incoming German invasion, and later by obsessively enforcing a rigid and very wasteful defensive strategy which helped the German military to achieve tremendous victories in the summer of 1941 and brought the Germans all the way to Moscow. Only then Stalin realized that he must allow his Generals to fight the war more professionally, not obsessively. He made the brilliant General Zhukov his top military advisor and also sent him to command the forces directly in key battles. This finally allowed the huge Russian military to exploit its full potential and succeed. After the war ended, Stalin's horrible political terror quickly returned and continued until his death.



Franklin Delano Roosevelt

Spoiler :
Franklin Delano Roosevelt, president of the United States of America (1933-1945) initially followed a very strong political demand to remain neutral and isolate the country from foreign wars, but he realized that the Nazi aggression was a global threat and the total opposite to the values of democracy and freedom, and persuaded the Congress to allow selling weapons to Britain and France, later declaring that the US will become the "arsenal of democracy". In May 1941, when German expansion and its attacks on British shipping to the US increased, he declared a state of national emergency, and realistically assumed that US forces will eventually have to participate in fighting against Nazi Germany. When Germany invaded Russia, he extended the military aid to Russia too, and enormous amounts of American military equipment and material were transferred to Russia during the war, allowing the Russian military industry to focus on mass production of the main weapon systems and ammunition. Despite the strong sympathy of the American public in support of Britain and against Nazism, only an attack on the US could persuade the American public to go to war. The attack eventually came from the opposite direction when Japan surprise attacked the US naval and air bases in Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, in December 7, 1941. The destructive surprise attack ended American isolationism and the US joined the war and allied with Britain and Russia to defeat the aggressors Axis of Nazi Germany, militarist Japan, and Fascist Italy. The mighty American industry went into full war production effort which dwarfed those of both allies and enemies, allowing the relatively small US military forces to rapidly grow to a mighty force, and defeat Japan and help Britain and Russia defeat Germany and Italy. President Roosevelt died in April 1945, shortly before the end of the war, and was succeeded by vice president Harry S. Truman.


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The victims


[Image: 150px-Daladier_1924.jpg]
Edouard Daladier

Spoiler :
Edouard Daladier was prime minister of France three times in 1933,1934, and again in April 1938. A supporter of the appeasement policy, he was not willing to go to war despite Hitler's series of pre-war aggression acts. In march 1940, already in World War 2, and with the French military passively deployed along the Maginot line of border fortifications, Daladier was replaced by Paul Reynaud, but remained in government as war minister. Two months later the German military shocked passive France in a surprise Blitzkrieg invasion and quickly defeated the large French military which was not ready for this kind of war, neither in spirit nor in equipment and tactics. Shortly before the French surrender, prime minister Reynaud replaced war minister Daladier with Charles De Gaulle, which was just a tank division commander, but he was the only commander in the French military which had some success against the invading Germans, and warned before the war of the weaknesses of the French military. De Gaulle's appointment was much too late to save France, and when France surrendered, De Gaulle fled to Britain and led the "free French" forces until the end of the war and later became post-war president of France. Daladier and Reynaud were arrested by the French puppet government established after the surrender and were handed to the Germans and imprisoned until the end of the war. Daladier shamelessly returned to French politics after the war for 12 more years and was a strong opponent of president De Gaulle.


King Zog of Albania

Spoiler :
Went to exile when Albania was invaded in 1939 by Italy. Albania remained occupied until the end of the war and then became a Communist dictatorship.


King George II

Spoiler :
King George II of the politically unstable Greece and his dictatorial prime minister Ioannis Metaxas insisted to remain neutral in World War 2, and repelled an Italian invasion which followed, but in 1941, shortly after Metaxas' death, the mighty Germany military came to help the weak Italian invaders and, despite support by a British military force, Greece was occupied by the Germans until it was liberated by the British in 1944. After the liberation Greece fell back into political instability which resulted in a civil war.


King Leopold III of Belgium

Spoiler :
He was imprisoned by the Germans after the poorly equipped Belgian military was crushed by German Blitzkrieg invasion in May 1940. After the war, Leopold was accused of collaborating with the Germans and forced to remain in exile.


Queen Wilhelmina of Holland

Spoiler :
Queen Wilhelmina of Holland and her government fled to London when Holland was invaded by the German military despite its neutrality. Holland surrendered after five days of German Blitzkrieg.


[Image: ddeab698e1bf8c65ccfb8b9e3ce19671.jpg]
King Haakon VII of Norway

Spoiler :
King Haakon VII of Norway rejected repeated German demands to surrender, demands that came after a sudden amphibious and airborne German invasion which ignored Norway's declared neutrality and good relations with Germany. The German invasion forces shocked and quickly overwhelmed the surprised Norwegian defenses in all major cities except the capital, which enabled King Haakon and the government to escape to a remote small village. From that small village the king managed to broadcast his message of resistance to the Norwegian people. After narrowly escaping a German air attack which totally destroyed that village, the king and government fled to northern Norway, which still fought. When the small Norwegian military, and British forces which landed in northern Norway to help them, failed to stop the Germans, the king and government were evacuated to Britain, and Norway remained under German military occupation until the end of World War 2. Persistent Norwegian resistance, and Hitler's worry of a second British landing, made him keep a huge garrison of 300,000 German troops in Norway until the end of the war, practically reducing this massive force from the German army's order of battle.


Edward Smigly-Rydz

Spoiler :
the military dictator of Poland fled abroad when the obsolete Polish army was crushed by the German Blitzkrieg invasion in September 1939. Two weeks after the Germans invaded, Poland was also invaded by Russia, following its secret agreement with Hitler. In June 1941, Nazi Germany occupied the Russian-held part of Poland when it attacked Russia. Following Hitler's racist theory and orders, the Nazi occupation of Poland was extremely brutal. The Nazi plan was to gradually decimate the Polish people and to reduce the remaining Poles to slaves. The 3 million jews of Poland were to be killed to the last one, either by murder or by being worked and starved to death as prisoners in the Nazi death camps. This organized genocide plan was gradually implemented by Nazi Germany during over five years of Nazi occupation of Poland. It cost the lives of nearly 3 millions Polish jews and millions of Christian Poles, destroyed the country, and deliberately caused tremendous human suffering. After World War 2 Poland became a Communist dictatorship under Russian influence.


[Image: 220px-Edvard_Bene%C5%A1.jpg]
Dr. Edvard Benes

Spoiler :
Dr. Edvard Benes was the elected president of Czechoslovakia between 1935 and October 1938 when he resigned when the appeasement policy of his French and British allies led them to support Hitler's demand to annex parts of Czechoslovakia. His successor,Dr. Emil Hacha, surrendered the rest of Czechoslovakia to Hitler in march 1939, under a threat of immediate German invasion, and was later arrested. Czechoslovakia remained under Nazi occupation until the end of World War 2. Dr. Benes led the Czech government-in-exile and after the war became president of Czechoslovakia again, but two years later, under strong Russian pressure, the country became a Communist dictatorship and Benes resigned and died shortly after.


[Image: 90094.jpg]
King Christian X of Denmark

Spoiler :
King Christian X of Denmark and his government immediately decided to surrender, in the morning when the German surprise invasion started. The king remained in his country, and until late in the war there was very little Danish resistance to the occupation. In 1943 the king was put under house arrest. Denmark was liberated by The Allies at the end of World War 2.


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señor de los anillos de plata
shitposter a nivel subatómico

Imagen de firma eliminada (demasiado grande) - DVN
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Timeline of the French Revolution, 1788-1793

[Image: Jacques_Bertaux_-_Prise_du_palais_des_Tu...-_1793.jpg]



Spoiler: 1788
  • August 8: The royal treasury is declared empty, and the Parlement of Paris, an assembly of nobles, refuses to reform the tax system or loan the Crown more money. To win their support for fiscal reforms, the Minister of Finance, Brienne, sets May 1, 1789 for a meeting of the Estates General, an assembly of the nobility, clergy and commoners (The third Estate), which has not met since 1614.
  • August 16: The treasury suspends payments on the debts of the government.
  • August 25: Brienne resigns as Minister of Finance, and is replaced by the Swiss banker Jacques Necker, popular with the Third Estate.
  • September 23: Reassured by Necker, French bankers and businessmen agree to loan the state 75 million, on the condition that the Estates General will have full powers to reform the system.
  • December 27: Over the opposition of the nobles, Necker announces that the representation of the Third Estate will be doubled, and that nobles and clergymen will be eligible to sit with the Third Estate.





Spoiler: 1789
  • January: The Abbé Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès publishes his famous pamphlet, "What is the Third Estate?" he writes; "What is the Third Estate? Everything. What is it now? Nothing. What does it want to be? Something!"
  • January 24: King Louis XVI convokes elections for delegates to the Estates-General
  • April 27: Riots in Paris by workers of the Réveillon wallpaper factory in the fabourg Saint-Antoine. Twenty-five workers were killed in battles with police.
  • May 2: Presentation to the King of the Deputies of the Estates-General at Versailles. The clergy and nobles are welcomed with formal ceremonies and processions, the Third Estate is not.
  • May 5: Formal opening of the Estates-General at Versailles.
  • May 6: The Deputies of the Third Estate refuse to meet separately from the other Estates, occupy the main hall, and invite the clergy and nobility to join them.
  • May 11: The nobility refuses to meet together with the Third Estate, but the clergy hesitates, and suspends the verification of its deputies.
  • May 20: The clergy renounces its special tax privileges, and accepts the principle of fiscal equality.
  • May 22: The nobility renounces its special tax privileges. However, the three estates are unable to agree on a common program.
  • May 25: The Third Estate deputies from Paris, delayed by election procedures, arrive in Versailles.
  • June 3: The scientist Jean Sylvain Bailly is chosen the leader of the Third Estate deputies.
  • June 4: The death of seven-year old Louis Josseph Xavier François, Dauphin of France, the eldest son and heir of Louis XVI. His four-year-old brother, Louis-Charles, Duke of Normandy, becomes the new Dauphin.
  • June 6: The deputies of the nobility reject a compromise program proposed by finance minister Jacques Necker.
  • June 10: At the suggestion of Sieyès, the Third Estate deputies decide to hold their own meeting, and invite the other Estates to join them.
  • June 13–14: Nine deputies from the clergy decide to join the meeting of the Third Estate.
  • June 17: On the proposal of Sieyés, the deputies of the Third Estate declare themselves the National Assembly.
  • June 19: By a vote of 149 to 137, the deputies of the clergy join the assembly of the Third Estate.
  • June 20: On the orders of Louis XVI, the meeting hall of the Third Estate is closed and locked. The deputies gather instead in the indoor tennis court and swear not to separate until they have given France a new Constitution. (The Tennis Court Oath).
  • June 21: The Royal Council rejects the financial program of Minister Necker.
  • June 22: The new National Assembly meets in the church of Saint Louis in Versailles. One hundred fifty deputies from the clergy attend, along with two deputies from the nobility.
  • June 23: Louis XVI holds a Séance royale, invalidates the decisions of the National Assembly and instructs the three estates to continue to meet separately. However, after the king's departure, the Third-Estate deputies refuse to leave the hall and declare that members of the Assembly cannot be legally arrested.
  • June 25: 48 nobles, headed by Louis Philippe II, Duke of Orléans, join the Assembly.
  • June 27: Louis XVI reverses course, instructs the nobility and clergy to meet with the other estates, and recognizes the new Assembly. At the same time, he orders reliable military units, largely composed of Swiss and German mercenaries, to Paris.
  • June 30: A crowd invades the prison of the Abbey of Saint-Germain-des-Prés and liberates soldiers who had been imprisoned for attending meetings of political clubs.

  • July 6: The National Assembly forms a committee of thirty members to write a new Constitution.
  • July 8: As tensions mount, the deputy Mirabeau demands that the Gardes Françaises, of the military household of the king of France be moved out of Paris, and that a new civil guard be created within the city.
  • July 9: The National Assembly reconstitutes itself as the National Constituent Assembly
  • July 11: Louis XVI abruptly dismisses Necker. Parisians respond by burning the unpopular customs barriers, and invading and looting the monastery of the Lazaristes. Skirmishes between the cavalrymen of the Régiment de Royal-Allemand of the King's Guard and the angry crowd outside the Tuileries Palace. The Gardes Françaises largely take the side of the crowd.
  • July 13: The National Assembly declares itself in permanent season. At the Hôtel de Ville, city leaders begin to form a governing committee and an armed militia.
  • July 14: Storming of the Bastille. A large armed crowd besieges the Bastille, which holds only seven prisoners but has a large supply of gunpowder, which the crowd wants. After several hours of resistance, The governor of the fortress de Launay, finally surrenders the fortress, and as he exits is killed by the crowd. The crowd also kills de Flesselles, the provost of the Paris merchants. The Revolution has begun.
  • July 15: The astronomer and mathematician Jean Sylvain Bailly is named mayor of Paris, and Lafayette is appointed Commander of the newly formed National Guard.
  • July 16: The King reinstates Necker as finance minister and withdraws royal troops from the center of the city. The new elected Paris assembly votes the destruction of the Bastille fortress. Similar committees and local militias are formed in Lyon, Rennes, and in other large French cities.
  • July 17: The King visits Paris, where he is welcomed at the Hôtel de Ville by Bailly and Lafayette, and wears the tricolor cockade. Sensing what is ahead, several prominent members of the nobility, including the Count of Artois, the Prince de Condé, the Duke of Enghien, the Baron de Breteuil, the Duke of Broglie, the Duke of Polignac and his wife become the first of a wave of émigrés to leave France.
  • Camille Desmoulins begins publication of La France libre, demanding a much more radical revolution, calling for a republic arguing that revolutionary violence is justified.
  • July 22: An armed mob on the Place de Grève massacres Berthier de Sauvigny, Intendant of Paris, and his father-in-law, accused of speculating in grain.
  • July 21-August 1: Riots and peasant revolts in Strasbourg (July 21), Le Mans (July 23), Colmar, Alsace, and Hainaut (July 25).
  • July 28: Jacques Pierre Brissot begins publication of Le Patriote français, an influential newspaper of the revolutionary movement known as the Girondins.
  • August 4: The King appoints a government of reformist ministers around Necker. The Assembly votes to abolish the privileges and feudal rights of the nobility.
  • August 7: Publication of "A plot uncovered to lull the people to sleep" by Jean-Paul Marat, denouncing the reforms of August 4 as insufficient and demanding a much more radical revolution. Marat quickly becomes the voice of the most turbulent sans culottes faction of the Revolution.
  • August 23: The Assembly proclaims freedom of religious opinions.
  • August 24: The Assembly proclaims freedom of speech.
  • August 26: The Assembly adopts the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, drafted largely by Lafayette.
  • August 28: The Assembly debates giving the King the power to veto legislation.
  • August 30: Camille Desmoulins organizes an uprising at the Palais-Royal, to block the proposed veto for the King and to force the King to return to Paris. The uprising fails.
  • August 31: The Constitution Committee of the Assembly proposes a two-house parliament and a royal right of veto.
  • September 9: The Mayor of Troyes is assassinated by a mob.
  • September 11: The National Assembly gives the King the power to temporarily veto laws for two legislative sessions.
  • September 15: Desmoulins publishes Discours de la lanterne aux Parisiens, a radical pamphlet justifying political violence and exalting the Parisian mob.
  • September 16: First issue of Jean Paul Marat's newspaper, L'Ami du peuple, proposing a radical social and political revolution.
  • September 19: Election of a new municipal assembly in Paris, with three hundred members elected by districts.
  • October 1: At the banquet des Gardes du Corps du Roi in Versailles, which Louis XVI, Marie-Antoinette and the Dauphin attended at dessert time, the King's guards put on the white royal cocarde. The false news quickly reaches Paris that the guards had trampled on the tricolor and causes outrage.
  • October 5: Marat's newspaper demands a march on Versailles to protest the insult to the tricolor cocarde. Thousands of women take part in the march, joined in the evening by the Paris national guard led by Lafayette.
  • October 6: After an orderly march, a crowd of women invade the Palace. The women demand that the King and his family accompany them back to Paris, and the King agrees. The National Assembly also decides to relocate to Paris.
  • October 10: The Assembly names Lafayette commander of the regular army in and around Paris. The Assembly also modifies the royal title from "King of France and Navarre" to "King of the French". Joseph-Ignace Guillotin, a doctor, member of the Assembly, proposes a new and more humane form of public execution, which eventually is named after him, the guillotine.
  • October 12: Louis XVI secretly writes to king Charles IV of Spain, complaining of mistreatment. The Count of Artois secretly writes to Joseph II of Austria requesting a military intervention in France.
  • October 19: The National Assembly holds its first meeting in Paris, in the chapel of the archbishop's residence next to Notre Dame.
  • October 21: The Assembly declares a state of martial law to prevent future uprisings.
  • November 2: The Assembly votes to place property of the Church at the disposition of the Nation.
  • November 9: The Assembly moves to the Salle du Manège, the former riding school near the Tuileries Palace.
  • November 28: First issue of Desmoulins' weekly Histoire des Révolutions de France et de Brabant, savagely attacking royalists and aristocrats.
  • December 1: Revolt by the sailors of the French Navy in Toulon, who arrest Admiral d'Albert, comte de Rioms.
  • December 9: The Assembly decides to divide France into departments, in place of the former provinces of France.
  • December 19: Introduction of the assignat, a form of currency based not on silver, but on the value of the property of the Church confiscated by the State.
  • December 24: The Assembly decrees that Protestants are eligible to hold public office; Jews are still excluded.






Spoiler: 1790
  • January 7: Riot in Versailles demanding lower bread prices.
  • January 18: Marat publishes a fierce attack on finance minister Necker.
  • January 22: Paris municipal police try to arrest Marat for his violent attacks on the government, but he is defended by a crowd of sans-culottes and escapes to London.
  • February 13: The Assembly forbids the taking of religious vows. and suppresses the contemplative religious orders.
  • February 23: The Assembly requires curés (parish priests) in churches across France to read aloud the decrees of the Assembly.
  • February 28: The Assembly abolishes the requirement that army officers be members of the nobility.
  • March 8: The Assembly decides to continue the institution of slavery in French colonies, but permits the establishment of colonial assemblies.
  • March 12: The Assembly approves the sale of the property of the church by municipalities
  • March 29: Pope Pius VI condemns the Declaration of the Rights of Man in a secret consistory.
  • April 5-May 3: A series of pro-catholic and anti-revolutionary riots in the French provinces; in Vannes (April 5), Nîmes (April 6), Toulouse (April 18), Toulon (May 3), and Avignon (June 10) a protesting measures taken against the church.
  • April 17: Foundation of the Cordeliers club, which meets in the former convent of that name. It becomes one of most vocal proponents of radical change.
  • April 30: Riots in Marseille. Three forts are captured, and the commander of Fort Saint-Jean, the Chevalier de Beausset, is assassinated.
  • May 18: Marat returns to Paris and resumes publication of L'Ami du people
  • May 22: The Assembly decides that it alone can decide issues of war and peace, but that the war cannot be declared without the proposition and sanction by the King.
  • May 12: Lafayette and Jean Sylvain Bailly institute the Society of 1789.
  • May 30: Lyon celebrates the Revolution with a Fête de la Fédération. Lille holds a similar event on June 6. Strasbourg on June 13, Rouen on June 19.
  • June 3: Uprising of biracial residents of the French colony of Martinique.
  • June 19: The Assembly abolishes the titles, orders, and other privileges of the hereditary nobility.
  • June 26: Avignon, then under the rule of the Pope, asks to be joined to France. The Assembly, wishing to avoid a confrontation with Pope Pius VI, delays a decision.
  • June 26: Diplomats of England, Austria, Prussia and the United Provinces meet at Reichenbach to discuss possible military intervention against the French Revolution.
  • July 12: The Assembly adopts the final text on the status of the French clergy. Clergymen lose their special status, and are required to take an oath of allegiance to the government.
  • July 14: The Fête de la Fédération is held on the Champ de Mars in Paris to celebrate the first anniversary of the Revolution. The event is attended by the king and queen, the National Assembly, the government, and a huge crowd. Lafayette takes a civic oath vowing to "be ever faithful to the nation, to the law, and to the king; to support with our utmost power the constitution decreed by the National Assembly, and accepted by the king." This oath is taken by his troops, as well as the king. The Fête de la Fédération is the last event to unite all the different factions in Paris during the Revolution.
  • July 23: The Pope writes a secret letter to Louis XVI, promising to condemn the Assembly's abolition of the special status of the French clergy.
  • July 26: Marat publishes a demand for the immediate execution of five to six hundred hundred aristocrats to save the Revolution.
  • July 28: The Assembly refuses to allow Austrian troops to cross French territory to suppress an uprising in Belgium, inspired by the French Revolution.
  • July 31: The Assembly decides to take legal action against Marat and Camille Desmoulins because of their calls for revolutionary violence.
  • August 16: The Assembly establishes positions of justices the peace around the country to replace the traditional courts held by the local nobles.
  • August 16: The Assembly calls for the re-establishment of discipline in the army.
  • August 31: Battles in Nancy between rebellious soldiers of the army and the national guard units of the city, who support Lafayette and the Assembly.
  • September 4: Necker, the finance minister, is dismissed. The National Assembly takes charge of the public treasury.
  • September 16: Mutiny of sailors of the French fleet at Brest.
  • October 6: Louis XVI writes his cousin, Charles IV of Spain, to express his hostility to the new status of the French clergy.
  • Ocrober 12: The Assembly dissolves the local assembly of Saint-Dominque (now Haiti) and again reaffirms the institution of slavery.
  • October 21: The Assembly decrees that the tricolor will replace the white flag and fleur-de-lys of the French monarchy as emblem of France.
  • November 4: Insurrection in the French colony of Isle de France (now Mauritius)
  • November 25: Uprising of black slaves in the French colony of Saint-Domingue (now Haiti).
  • November 27: The Assembly decrees that all members of the clergy must take an oath to the Nation, the Law and the King. A large majority of French clergymen refuse to take the oath.
  • December 3: Louis XVI writes to the King of Prussia, Fredrick-William II, asking for a military intervention by European monarchs to restore his authority.
  • December 27: Thirty-nine deputies of the Assembly, who are also clergymen, take an oath of allegiance to the government. However, a majority of clergymen serving in the Assembly refuse to take the oath.





Spoiler: 1791
  • January 1: Mirabeau elected President of the Assembly
  • January 3: Priests are ordered to take an oath to the Nation within twenty-four hours. A majority of clerical members of the Assembly refuse to take the oath.
  • February 19: Mesdames, the daughters of Louis XV and aunts of Louis XVI, depart France for exile.
  • February 24: Constitutional bishops, who have taken an oath to the State, replace the former Church hierarchy.
  • February 28: Day of Daggers; Lafayette orders the arrest of 400 armed aristocrats who have gathered at the Tuileries Palace to protect the royal family. They are freed on March 13.
  • March 2: Abolition of the traditional trade guilds.
  • March 3: The Assembly orders that the silver objects owned by the Church be melted down and sold to fund the government.
  • March 10: Pope Pius VI condemns the Civil Constitution of the Clergy
  • March 25: Diplomatic relations broken between France and the Vatican.
  • April 2: Death of Mirabeau.
  • April 3: The Assembly proposes transforming the new church of Sainte Geneviève, not yet consecrated, into the Panthéon. a mausoleum for illustrious citizens of France. On May 4, the remains of Mirabeau are the first to be placed in the new Panthéon.
  • April 13: Encyclical of Pope Pius VI condemns the Civil Constitution of the Clergy.
  • April 18: The National Guard, despite orders from Lafayette, blocks the royal family from going to the Château de Saint-Cloud to celebrate Easter.
  • May 16: On a proposal of Robespierre, the Assembly votes to forbid members of the current Assembly to become candidates for the next Assembly.
  • May 30: The Assembly orders the transfers of the ashes of Voltaire to the Panthéon.
  • June 14: The Chapelier Law is passed by the Assembly, abolishing corporations and forbidding labor unions and strikes.
  • June 15: The Assembly forbids priests to wear ecclesiastical costumes outside churches.
  • June 20–21: The Flight to Varennes. In the night of 20–21 June, the King, the Queen and their children slip out of the Tuileries Palace and flee by carriage in the direction of Montmédy.
  • June 21–22: The King is recognized at Varennes. The Assembly announces that he was taken against his will, and sends three commissioners to bring him back to Paris.
  • June 25: Louis XVI returns to Paris. The Assembly suspends his functions until further notice.
  • July 5: Leopold II issues the Padua Circular calling on the royal houses of Europe to come to the aid of Louis XVI, his brother-in-law.
  • July 9: The Assembly decrees that émigrés must return to France within two months, or forfeit their property.
  • July 11: The ashes of Voltaire are transferred to the Panthéon.
  • July 15: National Assembly declares the king is inviolable, and cannot be put on trial. Louis XVI suspended from his duties until the ratification of a new Constitution.
  • July 16: The more moderate members of the Jacobins club break away to form a new club, the Feuillants.
  • July 17: A demonstration sponsored by the Jacobins, Cordeliers and their allies carries a petition demanding the removal of the King to the Champ de Mars. The city government raises the red flag, the sign of martial law, and forbids the demonstration. The National Guard fires on the crowd, and some fifty persons are killed.
  • July 18: Following the events in the Champ de Mars, the Assembly forbids incitement to riot, urging citizens to disobey the law, and seditious publications, aimed at the Jacobins and Cordeliers. Marat goes into hiding and Danton flees to England.
  • August 14: Slave uprising begins in Saint Domingue (Haiti)
  • August 27: Declaration of Pillnitz - A proclamation by Frederick William II of Prussia and Habsburg Holy Roman Emperor Leopold II, affirms their wish to "put the King of France in a state to strengthen the bases of monarchic government." This vague statement is taken in France as a direct threat by the other European powers to intervene in the Revolution.
  • September 13–14: Louis XVI formally accepts the new Constitution.
  • September 27: The Assembly declares that all men living in France, regardless of color, are free, but preserves slavery in French colonies. French Jews are granted citizenship.
  • September 29: The Assembly limits membership in the National Guard to citizens who pay a certain level of taxes, thus excluding the working class.
  • September 30: Last day of the National Constituent Assembly. Assembly grants amnesty to all those punished for illegal political activity since 1788.
  • October 1: First session of the new National Legislative Assembly. Claude Pastoret, a monarchist, is elected President of the assembly.
  • October 16: Riots against the revolutionary commune, or city government, in Avignon. After an official of the commune is killed, anti-government prisoners kept in the basements of the Papal Palace are massacred.
  • November 9: Émigrés are again ordered to return to France before January 1, 1792, under penalty of losing their property and a sentence of death. King Louis XVI vetoes the declaration on November 11, but asks his brothers to return to France.
  • November 14: Jérôme Pétion de Villeneuve is elected mayor of Paris, with 6,728 votes against 3,126 for Lafayette. Out of 80,000 eligible voters, 70,000 abstain.
  • November 25: The Legislative Assembly creates a Committee of Surveillance to oversee the government.
  • November 29: Priests are again ordered to take an oath to the government, or to be considered suspects.
  • December 3: The King writes a secret letter to Frederick William II of Prussia, urging him to intervene militarily in France "to prevent the evil which is happening here before it overtakes the other states of Europe.
  • December 3: Louis XVI's brothers, (the counts of Provence and Artois) refuse to return to France, citing "the moral and physical captivity in which the King is being held."
  • December 14: Lafayette receives command of one of the three new armies established to defend the French borders, the Army of the Centre, based at Metz. The other two armies are commanded by Rochambeau (Army of the North) and Nicolas Luckner (Army of the Rhine).
  • December 28: The Assembly votes to summon a mass army of volunteers to defend the borders of France,
    [/list





Spoiler: 1792
  • 23 January: The slave uprising in Haiti causes severe shortages of sugar and coffee in Paris. Riots against food shortages; many food shops are looted.January – March: Food riots in Paris
  • February 7: Austria and Prussia sign a military convention to invade France and defend the monarchy.
  • February 9: The Assembly decrees the confiscation of the property of émigrés, for the benefit of the Nation.
  • February 23: Confrontation between the army and crowds in Béthune over the allocation of grain.
  • March 7: The Duke of Brunswick is named to command a joint Austrian-Prussian invasion of France.
  • March 20: The Assembly declares war on the King of Bohemia and Hungary, i.e. to the Holy Roman Empire.
  • April 5: The Assembly closes the Sorbonne, a center of conservative theology.
  • February 1: French citizens are required to have a passport to travel in the interior of the country.
  • April 25: Battle Hymn of the Army of the Rhine composed by Rouget de Lisle, is sung for the first time in Strasbourg.
  • April 28: The war begins. The army of Rochambeau invades the Austrian Netherlands (Belgium).
  • April 30: The government issues three hundred million assignats to finance the war.
  • May 5: The Assembly orders the raising of thirty-one new battalions for the army.
  • May 6: The Royal-Allemand regiment, composed of German mercenaries, deserts the French army and joins the Austrian-Prussian coalition.
  • May 12: The Hussar regiments of Saxe and Bercheny desert the French Army and join the coalition.
  • May 27: The Assembly orders the deportation of priests who have not signed the oath to the government.
  • June 8: The Assembly orders the raising of an army of twenty thousand volunteer soldiers to be camped outside Paris.
  • June 11: The King vetoes the laws on the deportation of priests and the formation of a new army outside Paris.
  • June 20: A secret insurrectionary committee, supported by the Paris Commune and led by the prosecutors Louis Pierre Manuel and Georges Danton, is formed.
  • June 20: A mob invades the Tuileries Palace and forces the King to wear a red liberty cap and to drink to the health of the Nation.
  • June 21: The Assembly bans gatherings of armed citizens within the city limits.
  • June 28: Lafayette speaks to the Assembly, denouncing the actions of the Jacobins and other radical groups in the Assembly. His proposal to organize a review of the National guard in Paris is annulled by Pétion, mayor of Paris.
  • June 30: Lafayette leaves Paris and returns to his army. He is denounced by Robespierre and his effigy is burned by a mob at the Palais-Royal.
  • July 5: As the Austrian army advances slowly toward Paris, the Assembly declares that the Nation is in danger (La Patrie en danger).
  • July 15: The Assembly votes to send regular army units, whose officers largely support Lafayette, far outside the city.
  • July 15: The Cordeliers Club, led by Danton, demands the convocation of a Convention to replace the Legislative Assembly.
  • July 25: The Assembly authorizes the Paris sections, local assemblies in each neighborhood, many controlled by the Jacobins and Cordeliers, to meet in permanent sessions.
  • July 25: Brunswick Manifesto - The Austrian commander warns that should the royal family be harmed, an "exemplary and eternally memorable revenge" will follow.
  • July 28: The Brunswick Manifesto is widely circulated in Paris, causing fury against the King.
  • July 30: Decree by the Assembly allows working-class citizens (those who pay no taxes) to join the National Guard.
  • July 30: Arrival in Paris of volunteers from Marseille. They sing the new war hymn, of the Army of the Rhine, which gradually takes their name, La Marseillaise. Fights break out between the new volunteers and soldiers of the National Guard loyal to Lafayette.
  • August 3: 47 of the 48 sections of Paris, mostly controlled by the Cordeliers and Jacobins, send petitions to the Assembly, demanding the removal of the King. They are presented by Pétion, the mayor of Paris.
  • August 4: The Paris section Number Eighty proclaims an insurrection on August 10 if the Assembly does not remove the King. At the request of the royal household, the Swiss guards at the Tuileries are reinforced, and joined by many armed nobles.
  • August 9: Georges Danton, a deputy city prosecutor, and his Cordeliers allies take over the Paris city government and establish the Revolutionary Paris commune. They take possession of the Paris City Hall. They increase the number of Commune deputies to 288. The Assembly recognizes them as the legal government of Paris on August 10.
  • August 10: Storming of the Tuileries Palace. An armed mob attacks the Tuileries Palace. The King and his family takes refuge in the Legislative Assembly. The Swiss Guards defending the Palace are massacred. The Legislative Assembly provisionally suspends the authority of the King, and orders the election of a new government, the Convention.
  • August 11: The Assembly elects a new Executive Committee to replace the government. Georges Danton is named Minister of Justice. The municipalities are authorized to arrest suspected enemies of the Revolution, and royalist newspapers and publications are banned.
  • August 13: Royal family imprisoned in the Temple.
  • August 14: Lafayette tries unsuccessfully to persuade his army to march on Paris to rescue the King.
  • August 17: At the demand of Robespierre and the Commune of Paris, who threatens an armed uprising if the Assembly does not comply, the Assembly votes the creation of a Revolutionary Tribunal the members of which are selected by the Commune, and the summoning of a National Convention to replace the Assembly.
  • August 18: The Assembly abolishes the religious teaching orders and those running hospitals, the last remaining religious orders in France.
  • August 19: Lafayette leaves his army and departs France for exile. The Coalition army of Austrian soldiers and French émigrés, led by the Duke of Brunswick crosses the border into France.
  • August 21: First summary judgement by the Revolutionary Tribunal and execution by the guillotine of a royalist, Louis Collenot d'Angremont.
  • August 22: The Paris Commune orders that persons henceforth be addressed as Citoyen, Citoyenne ("Citizen") rather than Monsieur or Madame.
  • August 22: Royalist riots in Brittany, Vendée and Dauphiné.
  • September 2: Capitulation without a fight of Verdun to Brunswick's troops.
  • September 3: Following the news of surrender of Verdun, the Commune orders massacres of prisoners in Paris prisons. Between 1,090 and 1,395 prisoners are killed, the great majority were common criminals. Seventeen percent of those killed were priests, six percent Swiss guards, and five percent political prisoners.
  • September 10: The government requisitions all church objects made of gold or silver.
  • September 19: Creation of the Louvre Museum displaying art taken from royal collections.
  • September 20: Last session of Assembly votes a new law permitting civil marriage and divorce.
  • September 20: The French army under Generals Dumouriez and Kellerman defeat the Prussians at the Battle of Valmy. The Prussians retreat.
  • September 20: The newly elected National Convention holds its first session behind closed doors, in the Salle du Manège, the former riding school of the Tuileries Palace, and elects its Bureau. Of the 749 deputies, 113 are Jacobins, who take their seats in the highest benches in the hall, the Montagne (Mountain), thus their nickname of Montagnards, the "Mountaineers".
  • September 25: The Convention proclaims the abolition of royalty and the First French Republic.
  • September 29: French troupes occupy Nice, then part of Savoy.
  • October 3: French troops occupy Basel in Switzerland, then ruled by Archbishop of Basel, and proclaim it an independent Republic.
  • October 23: French troops occupy Frankfurt.
  • October 27: The French army under Dumouriez invades the Austrian Netherlands (Belgium). They occupy Brussels on November 14.
  • November 19: The Convention claims the right to intervene in any country "where people desire to recover their freedom".
  • November 20: Discovery in the king's apartment in the Tuileries Palace of the armoire de fer, an iron strongbox containing Louis XVI's secret correspondence with Mirabeau and with foreign monarchs.
  • November 27: The Convention decrees the attachment of Nice and the Savoy to France.
  • November 28 The French army occupies Liege.
  • December 3: Robespierre, leader of the Jacobins and first deputy for Paris in the Convention, demands that the King be put to death.
  • December 6: At the proposal of Jean-Paul Marat, the Convention rules that each Deputy must individually and publicly declare his vote on the death penalty for the King.
  • December 10: Opening of the trial of Louis XVI before the Convention.
  • December 11: Louis XVI is brought before the Convention. He appears in person twice, December 11 and 23.
  • December 26: Defense of the King presented by his lawyer, Raymond Desèze (Raymond comte de Sèze).
  • December 27–28: Motions in the Convention asking that people vote on judgement of the King. The motion is opposed by Robespierre, who declares "Louis must die so that the nation may live." The Convention rejects the motion for French voters to decide the King's fate.




  • Spoiler: 1793
    • January 15: The Convention declares Louis XVI guilty of conspiracy against public liberty by a vote of 707 to zero.
    • January 27: In a vote lasting twenty-one hours, 361 deputies vote for the death penalty, and 360 against (including 26 for a death penalty followed by a pardon). The Convention rejects a final appeal to the people.
    • January 21: Louis XVI is beheaded at 10:22 on Place de la Révolution. The commander of the execution orders a drum roll to drown out his final words to the crowd.
    • January 24: Breaking of diplomatic relations between England and France.
    • February 1: The Convention declares war against England and the Dutch Republic.
    • February 14: The Convention annexes the Principality of Monaco.
    • February 14: Jean Nicolas Pache is elected the new mayor of Paris.
    • March 1: Decree of the Convention annexes Belgium to France.
    • March 3: Armed royalist uprising against the Convention begins in Brittany.
    • March 7: The Convention declares war against Spain.
    • March 7: Armed uprising against the rule of the Convention, and particularly against conscription into the army, begins in the Vendée region of west-central France. ( War in the Vendée)
    • March 10: Revolutionary Tribunal established in Paris, with Fouquier-Tinville as the public prosecutor.
    • March 10: Failed uprising in Paris by the ultra-revolutionary faction known as the Enragés, led by the former priest Jacques Roux.
    • March 18: The Convention decrees the death penalty for those advocating radical economic programs, a decree aimed at the Enragés.
    • March 19: The Convention decrees the death penalty for any participant in the uprising in the Vendée.
    • March 21: Establishment of Revolutionary Surveillance Committees (Comités de surveillance révolutionnaire) in all communes and their sections.
    • March 27: General Dumouriez denounces revolutionary anarchy.
    • March 30: The Convention orders Dumouriez to return to Paris, and sends four commissaires and Pierre de Ruel, the Minister of War, to arrest him.
    • April 1: Dumouriez arrests the commissaires of the Convention and Minister of War and hands them over to the Austrians,
    • April 3: Convention declares Dumouriez outside the law.
    • April 3: Arrest of Philippe Égalité, a deputy and member of the Orléans branch of the royal family, who had voted for the execution of Louis XVI, his cousin
    • April 4: Dumouriez fails to persuade his army to march on Paris, and goes over to the Austrians on April 5.
    • April 5: Jean Paul Marat is elected head of the Jacobin Club.
    • April 6: Committee of Public Safety established by the Convention to oversee the ministries and to be chief executive body of the government. Its first nine members included Bertrand Barère, Pierre Joseph Cambon and Georges Danton.
    • April 6: First session of the Revolutionary Tribunal.
    • April 12: The Convention votes to arrest Marat for using his newspaper to incite violence and murder and his demand to suspend the Convention. Marat goes into hiding.
    • April 15: The mayor of Paris, Jean Nicolas Pache, demands that the Convention expel 23 deputies belonging to the moderate Girondin faction.
    • April 24: Marat is brought before the Revolutionary Tribunal, and is acquitted of all charges. His release causes riotous celebrations by his supporters
    • May 3: The rebels of the Vendée, led by the aristocrats Charles de Bonchamps and Henri de La Rochejaquelein, capture Bressuire.
    • May 4: At the demand of the Paris section of Saint-Antoine, the Convention fixes a maximum price for grain.
    • May 24: The Convention, at the demand of the Girondins, orders the arrest of the ulta-revolutionary Enragés leaders Jacques René Hébert and Jean Varlet.
    • May 25: The Paris Commune demands the release of Hébert and Varlet.
    • May 26: At the Jacobin Club, Robespierre and Marat call for an insurrection against the Convention. The Paris Commune begins preparing a seizure of power.
    • May 27: Release of Hébert and Varlet.
    • May 30: The leaders of Lyon rebel against the Convention, arresting the local Montagnard and Enragés leaders.
    • May 31: Insurrection of 31 May – 2 June 1793. An armed crowd of sans-culottes organized by the Commune storms the hall of the Convention and demands that it disband. The deputies resist.
    • June 2: The sans-culottes and soldiers of the Paris Commune, led by François Hanriot, occupy the hall of the Convention and force it to vote for the arrest of 29 Girondist deputies, and two ministers, Claviére and Lebrun.
    • June 10: Montagnards gain control of the Committee of Public Safety.
    • June 6: Revolts against the Montagnard coup d'état in Marseille, Nîmes, and Toulouse. Bordeaux.
    • June 7: Bordeaux rejects the new government.
    • June 10: Despite the Revolution, scientific research continues. Opening of the National Museum of Natural History.
    • June 13: Leaders of departments opposing the new government meet in Caen. About sixty departments are in revolt against Montagnard government in Paris.
    • June 24: Ratification of new Constitution by the National Convention.
    • June 25: Jacques Roux, leader of the ultra-revolutionary Enragés, presents his program to the Convention.
    • June 26; Robespierre denounces the Enragés before the Convention.
    • June 30: Robespierre and Hébert lead a delegation of Jacobins to the Cordeliers Club to demand the exclusion from the club of Roux and the other ultra-revolutionary leaders.
    • July 3: The eight-year old Louis XVII, king of France in the eyes of the royalists, is taken from Marie Antoinette and given to a cobbler named Antoine Simon on orders from the National Convention.
    • July 4: Marat violently denounces the Enragés.
    • July 13: Charlotte Corday assassinates Jean-Paul Marat in his bath. At her trial, she declares, "I killed one man to save a hundred thousand."
    • July 17: Charlotte Corday is tried and sentenced to death by the Revolutionary Tribunal for murdering Marat. She is guillotined after her trial.
    • July 27: Robespierre elected to the Committee of Public Safety.
    • July 27: The Convention institutes death penalty for those who hoard scarce goods.
    • August 1: The Convention declares a scorched earth polity against all departments rebelling against its authority.
    • August 1: The Convention adopts the principles of the metric system.
    • August 1: On order by decree of the Convention, a mob profanes the tombs of the Kings of France at the Basilica of Saint-Denis.
    • August 2: Marie-Antoinette is transferred from the Temple to the Conciergerie.
    • August 8: The Convention sends an army led by General Kellermann to lay siege to the rebellious city of Lyon.
    • August 22: Robespierre is elected the president of the Convention.
    • August 23: Levée en masse voted by the Convention. All able-bodied non-married men between ages 18 and 25 are required to serve in the army.
    • August 25: Soldiers of the Convention capture Marseille.
    • August 27: Anti-Convention leaders in Toulon invite the British fleet and army to occupy the city.
    • September 4: Sans-culottes occupy the Convention and demand the arrest of suspected opponents of the Revolution, and the creation of a new revolutionary army of 60,000 men.
    • September 17: Convention adopts a new Law of Suspects, permitting the arrest and rapid trial of anyone suspected of opposing the Revolution. Start of Reign of Terror.
    • September 18: Convention re-establishes revolutionary government in Bordeaux. Opponents are arrested and imprisoned.
    • September 21: All women are required to wear a tricolor cocarde.
    • September 29: The Convention passes the General Maximum, fixing the prices of many goods and services, as well as maximum salaries.
    • October 3: The Convention orders that Marie-Antoinette be tried by the Revolutionary Tribunal.
    • October 3: Additional moderate deputies are accused and excluded from the Assembly; a total of 136 deputies are excluded.
    • October 5: To break with the past and replace traditional religious holidays, the Convention adopts the newly created Republican Calendar: Year I is declared to have begun on September 22, 1791.
    • October 9: Lyon is recaptured by the army of the Convention.
    • October 10: A decree by the Convention puts the new Constitution on hold. On a proposal from Saint-Just, the Convention declares that "The government of France is revolutionary until the peace."
    • October 12: The Convention decrees that the city of Lyon will be destroyed in punishment for its rebellion, and renamed Ville-Affranchie.
    • October 12: Marie-Antoinette is summoned before the Revolutionary Tribunal and charged with treason.
    • October 16: The Army of the Convention defeats the Austrian Army at the Battle of Wattignies.
    • October 16: Marie-Antoinette is convicted and guillotined on the Place de la Revolution.
    • October 17: The Army of the Convention under Generals Jean-Baptiste Kléber and François Séverin Marceau-Desgraviers defeats the Vendéen rebels at Cholet.
    • October 20: The Convention orders the repression of the ultra-revolutionary Enragés.
    • October 28: The Convention forbids religious instruction by clerics.
    • October 30: The Revolutionary Tribunal sentences the 21 Girondins deputies to death.
    • October 31: The 21 Girondin deputies are guillotined.
    • November 3: Olympe de Gouges, champion of rights for women, accused of Girondin sympathies, is guillotined.
    • November 7: Philippe Égalité is guillotined.
    • November 8: Madame Roland is guillotined in the purge of Girondins. Before her execution, she cries: "Liberty, what crimes are committed in your name!"
    • November 10: The Cathedral of Notre Dame is re-dedicated as a Temple of Reason in to the civic religion of the Cult of Reason.
    • November 12: The astronomer and former mayor of Paris, Jean Sylvain Bailly, is executed on the Champ de Mars for his role in suppressing a demonstration there on July 17, 1791.
    • November 17: On Robespierre's orders, supporters of Danton are arrested.
    • November 20: Danton returns to Paris, after being absent since October 11. He urges "indulgence" toward opponents and "national reconciliation".
    • November 23: The Paris Commune orders the closing of all churches and places of worship in Paris.
    • November 25: Convention votes to remove Mirabeau's remains from the Panthéon and replace them with those of Marat.
    • December 5: The Cordelier deputy Camille Desmoulins, supporting Danton, publishes an appeal for national reconciliation.
    • December 12: Defeat of the rebel Vendéen army at Le Mans.
    • December 19: Withdrawal of the British from Toulon, following a successful military operation conceived and led by a young artillery officer, Napoléon Bonaparte.
    • December 23: The Army of General François Joseph Westermann destroys the last the Vendéen army at Savenay. Six thousand prisoners are executed.
    • December 24: To punish the rebellious city of Toulon, the Convention renames it Port-la-Montagne.

  • The following 1 user Likes Emil's post:
      • lordofthesilver
    #25
    How To Read:

    Read from left to right using the letters provided (make sure it is in order).
    #26
    how to read in arabic:
    read from right to left using the arabic letters provided
    example: تقتل نفسك
    señor de los anillos de plata
    shitposter a nivel subatómico

    Imagen de firma eliminada (demasiado grande) - DVN
    #27
    (09-25-2016, 12:02 PM)lordofthesilver Wrote: how to read in arabic:
    read from right to left using the arabic letters provided
    example: تقتل نفسك

    First you told me you were from Northern Norway, then your FL profile said you were from Antarctica (I think it was?) and now you are from the Isle of Man?
    #28
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    #29
    (09-25-2016, 12:42 PM)Emil2205 Wrote:
    (09-25-2016, 12:02 PM)lordofthesilver Wrote: how to read in arabic:
    read from right to left using the arabic letters provided
    example: تقتل نفسك

    First you told me you were from Northern Norway, then your FL profile said you were from Antarctica (I think it was?) and now you are from the Isle of Man?

    i am from everywhere
    señor de los anillos de plata
    shitposter a nivel subatómico

    Imagen de firma eliminada (demasiado grande) - DVN
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    #30
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